The Lexicon Alpinum is essentially an alphabetical list of the morpho-lexical types, the base types and the concepts collected by VerbaAlpina. Some entries are accompanied by linguistic comments. This is mainly the case when, in the opinion of VerbaAlpina, there is no or only insufficient information available from the cited reference dictionaries. The alphabetical list also contains a few entries on selected concepts that are central to VerbaAlpina, such as CHEESE, BUTTER or CHALET. More detailed explanations are, apart from the special project-specific meaning, mostly motivated by the fact that VerbaAlpina considers the information provided in common reference books (mainly in the large etymological dictionaries and in the portals operated by Wikimedia, in particular Wikipedia) to be insufficient in the context of the project perspective. To a certain extent, both the selection of the concepts presented in the Lexicon Alpinum and the decision to which morpho-lexical respectively base types a special comment is added is intuitive.
The functionality of the Lexicon Alpinum arises largely from the symbols (icons) in the title bar and on the right margin of each entry; the meaning of the icons also appears when the mouse arrow is placed over them (mouseover). Each entry can be directly addressed via the citation icon (") and linked via another icon (chain icon). The respective keyword of the article can also be visualised on the interactive map. The icon on the right margin ('Data') leads to all the information gathered in the info windows of the interactive map; above all, the links to corresponding articles in reference dictionaries appear. In the case of concepts, also links to Wikidata data objects as well as to other norm data are provided; in this way, the material of VA will be contextualized lexicographically and encyclopedically.
However, the entries of the Lexicon Alpinum are not only linked to norm data from outside the project, but project-specific norm data are also provided and appear in the title bar immediately after the keyword. Depending on whether the keyword represents a morpho-lexical type, a base type or a concept, these VA norm data are indexed with 'Lnn', 'Bnn' or 'Cnn'. Finally, an icon is also available for downloading all information.
The functionality of the Lexicon Alpinum arises largely from the symbols (icons) in the title bar and on the right margin of each entry; the meaning of the icons also appears when the mouse arrow is placed over them (mouseover). Each entry can be directly addressed via the citation icon (") and linked via another icon (chain icon). The respective keyword of the article can also be visualised on the interactive map. The icon on the right margin ('Data') leads to all the information gathered in the info windows of the interactive map; above all, the links to corresponding articles in reference dictionaries appear. In the case of concepts, also links to Wikidata data objects as well as to other norm data are provided; in this way, the material of VA will be contextualized lexicographically and encyclopedically.
However, the entries of the Lexicon Alpinum are not only linked to norm data from outside the project, but project-specific norm data are also provided and appear in the title bar immediately after the keyword. Depending on whether the keyword represents a morpho-lexical type, a base type or a concept, these VA norm data are indexed with 'Lnn', 'Bnn' or 'Cnn'. Finally, an icon is also available for downloading all information.
(Quote) (Visualize on the map)
This base type originates from Lat. ŭnctum ‘grease, ointment’ and correlates with the past participle of the Lat. verb ŭngere ‘to grease’. Due to nominalization, the meaning ‘the fat’ emerged. At the same time, it meant ‘ointment’ from the 2nd century on. Both meanings can still be found today. ‘Ointment’ is preserved in Ita. unguento, Piedmontese oit (cf. Treccani under unguento). A further component of this base is Ron. unt or Friulan ont with the meaning ‘Butter’ (cf. FEW 14, 29 under unctum; cf. REW 9057 under unctum. According to Kluge (2012: 437), the base type ancho appears to share the same Ine. root (*ongw en- ‛ointment, grease, butter’) with the base type ŭnctum.
(auct. Myriam Abenthum – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
ALPINE HUT - Concept (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
(See Wikidata Q18169655)
baubor (lat) - Base type (Visualize on the map)
cf. Georges under baubor
BUTTER - Concept (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
(See Wikidata Q34172)
butyru(m) (lat) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
The Lat. etymon of this base type does not pose a problem: It is a Greek loan word which is composed of tyrós (ὁ τυ̅ρός) 'cheese' and boūs (ἡ βοῦς: cf. Lat. bovis) 'cow'. The emphasis on cattle-cheese that is expressed by this word formation marks the product as something distinctive and indicates that CHEESE originally was not produced using COW'S MILK. To this day, cheese is customarily produced using sheep's and goat's milk in Greek culture (compare this corresponding depiction from the Polyphemus-episode in the Odyssey [9,170-566; esp. 244-247]; Polyphemus does not own any cattle).
τὸ βούτυ̅ρον is Greek for 'the milk's fat' (τὸ πῖον τοῦ γάλακτος [Corpus Hippocraticum]). The Corpus Hippocraticum (a collection of medicinal texts that were recorded between the sixth century BC and second century AD) gives an account of the Scythians producing cheese from mare’s milk (Corp. Hipp., Morb. 4, 20). The method described therein has remained the same and is occasionally applied to this day. Reportedly, the Scythians filled a barrel (hollow wooden vessels: ἐς ξύλα κοῖλα) with the mare’s milk which was then shaken. It is not specified in the Corpus Hippocraticum what the butter was used for by the Scythians (as a food or as a remedy).
Similar to the Corpus Hippocraticum, the impression of the use butter as something typically 'barbaric' emerges when reading Pliny the Elder (NH 28, 35: e lacte fit et butyrum, barbararum gentium lautissimus cibus et qui divites a plebe discernat). This may be due to the (still) predominant use of olive oil as cooking fat in the Mediterranean world. In the Greco-Roman region, butter seems to have been used more as a remedy rather than a cooking ingredient. There certainly are numerous records of βούτυ̅ρον/butyrum in the context of medical literature (i.a. in Celsus and Galen, apart from Hippocrates). Pliny the Elder also denotes the use of butter as a remedy (e.g., against neck pain: NH 28, 52)
In addition to the neuter gender βούτυ̅ρον, there is also the masculine version ὁ βούτυ̅ρος. In both cases, the accent falls on the third to last syllable (proparoxytone). The Greek word seems to have been adopted into Latin (butyrum).
There are two accent variants of the base type butyru(m) that need to be distinguished:
Therefore, it seems that the type butyrum largely repressed the meaning of 'to grease' contained in Lat. unguere / *ungere.
τὸ βούτυ̅ρον is Greek for 'the milk's fat' (τὸ πῖον τοῦ γάλακτος [Corpus Hippocraticum]). The Corpus Hippocraticum (a collection of medicinal texts that were recorded between the sixth century BC and second century AD) gives an account of the Scythians producing cheese from mare’s milk (Corp. Hipp., Morb. 4, 20). The method described therein has remained the same and is occasionally applied to this day. Reportedly, the Scythians filled a barrel (hollow wooden vessels: ἐς ξύλα κοῖλα) with the mare’s milk which was then shaken. It is not specified in the Corpus Hippocraticum what the butter was used for by the Scythians (as a food or as a remedy).
Similar to the Corpus Hippocraticum, the impression of the use butter as something typically 'barbaric' emerges when reading Pliny the Elder (NH 28, 35: e lacte fit et butyrum, barbararum gentium lautissimus cibus et qui divites a plebe discernat). This may be due to the (still) predominant use of olive oil as cooking fat in the Mediterranean world. In the Greco-Roman region, butter seems to have been used more as a remedy rather than a cooking ingredient. There certainly are numerous records of βούτυ̅ρον/butyrum in the context of medical literature (i.a. in Celsus and Galen, apart from Hippocrates). Pliny the Elder also denotes the use of butter as a remedy (e.g., against neck pain: NH 28, 52)
In addition to the neuter gender βούτυ̅ρον, there is also the masculine version ὁ βούτυ̅ρος. In both cases, the accent falls on the third to last syllable (proparoxytone). The Greek word seems to have been adopted into Latin (butyrum).
There are two accent variants of the base type butyru(m) that need to be distinguished:
- paroxytone Lat. butӯru(m) which is the origin of the Ita. type butirro (cf. DELI 179);
- Lat. bútyru(m) with the accent on the initial syllable which was inherited from Gr. βούτυ̅ρον. From this came the Old French bure resulting in Modern French beurre. This type was borrowed by Italian and led to Ita. burro (cf. DELI 178).
Therefore, it seems that the type butyrum largely repressed the meaning of 'to grease' contained in Lat. unguere / *ungere.
(auct. Thomas Krefeld | Stephan Lücke – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
*cala (lat) (* = Reconstructed) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
This base type is 'spread as a place name and appellative across a large area in western Mediterranean languages' (FEW 2, 51, under kala). Originally, it seems to have been a pre-Indo-European terrain description which meant 'sheltered site'. This explains the term cala 'bay' in Italian (e.g., Sicilian) and Ibero-Romanic (cf. FEW ibid.). In VerbaAlpina’s research area, this base also has its source in the name of the Val Calanca, a lateral valley of the Misox/Misocco.
(auct. Thomas Krefeld – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
caput (lat) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
The base for this is Lat. caput 'head'. In Latin, caput competed with testa, which actually meant 'clay vessel, shard'. In the larger part of the Romanesque language area, caput was given up in favour of testa (cf. FEW 2, 334 under caput). However, its original meaning prevailed in Lombardy, in southern Italy, in Tuscany, in Friuli, Grisons, Romania, Catalonia, south-east France and in the Dolomite Ladin area (Ita. capo, Lld. ćé or Friulan ciâf; cf. DELI 1, 199-200; cf. EWD II, 74-75). The Latin caput already had versatile metaphorical uses, such as 'the top, the peak, the tip' (cf. Georges under caput). In the Romanesque language area of the Alps, metaphorical terms denoting CREAM can be found, since it accumulates on top of the milk. Cappellus is the result of a similar metaphorical transfer.
(auct. Myriam Abenthum – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
CHEESE - Concept (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
(See Wikidata Q10943)
CHEESE OF THE LIQUID AFTER THE FIRST COAGULATION OF THE SOLID MATTERS - Concept (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
(See Wikidata Q14776091)
cohortem (lat) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
According to Georges, the original meaning of Lat. cohors is 'a place that is fenced all around, the courtyard, the enclosure, especially for livestock, the stockyard'. Through metonymical transfer, such meanings as 'crowd, bevy, entourage' as well as the commonly known special military terms ('a tenth of a legion, bodyguard' etc.) arose. Within the Alpine region, the original meaning has been preserved ('open area for milking and sleeping around the Alpine hut'), while it also underwent a natural metonymical transfer to pasture huts (cf. the analogous polysemy of the base type malga).
Varro refers to two derivations of the word cohors he considers plausible: It could either be connected to the verb coorior and thus denote the place around which livestock gathers (according to R.G. Kent's translation [Varro. On the Latin Language, Volume I: Books 5-7. Translated by Roland G. Kent. Loeb Classical Library 333. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1938], although this meaning is hard to bring in line with the other recorded meanings in Georges and, more generally, the basic meaning of the simplex oriri altogether), or it could be related to the Greek χόρτος, which itself seems to be linked to Lat. hortus (Varro, De Lingua Latina 5,88: cohors quae in villa, quod circa eum locum pecus cooreretur, tametsi cohortem in villa Hypsicrates dicit esse Graece χόρτον apud poetas dictam). Both hortus and χόρτος originally have quite similar meanings to cohors (on χόρτος see, e.g., Il. 11, 774 or 24, 640).
Varro refers to two derivations of the word cohors he considers plausible: It could either be connected to the verb coorior and thus denote the place around which livestock gathers (according to R.G. Kent's translation [Varro. On the Latin Language, Volume I: Books 5-7. Translated by Roland G. Kent. Loeb Classical Library 333. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1938], although this meaning is hard to bring in line with the other recorded meanings in Georges and, more generally, the basic meaning of the simplex oriri altogether), or it could be related to the Greek χόρτος, which itself seems to be linked to Lat. hortus (Varro, De Lingua Latina 5,88: cohors quae in villa, quod circa eum locum pecus cooreretur, tametsi cohortem in villa Hypsicrates dicit esse Graece χόρτον apud poetas dictam). Both hortus and χόρτος originally have quite similar meanings to cohors (on χόρτος see, e.g., Il. 11, 774 or 24, 640).
(auct. Thomas Krefeld | Stephan Lücke – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
CREAM - Concept (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
(See Wikidata Q13228)
formaticu(m) (lat) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
The base type formaticu(m) ist derived from lat. forma 'shape, vessel'. It stems from Gallic and was initially only used as an adjective related to cāseus 'cheese'. Taken together, they resulted in a term for moulded hard cheese. During its further development, the noun cāseus was dropped while the adjective formaticum underwent nominalisation. The first records of this can be found in a Northern French glossary from the 8th century. Furthermore, the Middle Breton fourondec indicates its old age since it suggests a borrowing before the shift from -aticu to -age. Besides the suffix change, a metathesis can also be observed in the Old French, Middle French and New French forms. Old French knows the form formage 'substance alimentaire qu'on obtient en faisant subir diverses préparations au lait caillé; masse de cette substance moulée en pain'. Then, in Middle French, two forms coexist: On the one hand, there are records of fourmage. On the other hand, the version froumage exists. The metathesis is completely realised in the New French form fromage. Originating from the Gallo-Roman language area, it became a loanword in numerous other Romanic languages. Thus, ita. em>formaggio, pms. furmágg, lmo. formai or vec. formagio (cf. FEW 3, 717-719 under formaticum) can be found all across the northern Italian area. In Dolomitic Ladin, the type formaticum has almost completely replaced the type cāseus. The type cāseus is only still used in Val Badia and Val Gardena in the forms ćiajó and ćiaujel (both of which stem from the suffixed caseolus) as the AIS map 1217 and the EWD (II, 126) show. The shift of the base type formaticu(m) can be nicely explained by linking word and object, as in this case, the word was evidently motivated by a new method of production in which the cheese is left to ripen in a mould.
(auct. Myriam Abenthum | Thomas Krefeld – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
GOAT - Concept (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
(See Wikidata Q2934)
lăcte(m) (lat) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
This base type is derived from Lat. lac 'milk', which corresponds to Gr. γάλα (n.) or γλάγος (n; primarily poetic, preference likely due to metrics, as documented in Homer Il. II 471 or Pindar AGr. 106) (cf. Georges 2, 525 under lac). Later, the gender changed from neuter to masculine which resulted in Lat. lăcte(m) (acc. of lac [n.] = lac!). Lat. lacte(m) (masculine gender) was largely retained as an inherited word in Romanesque languages, which led to Fr. lait, Ita. làtte, Friulan lait, Piedmontese lait and the Dolomite Ladin type làt as well (cf. FEW 5, 114 under làt; cf. EWD 4, 177; cf. DELI 3, 655). The inherited masculine word is less common than the feminine in VerbaAlpina's research area, like, for example, the Venetic late (cf. DéROM under */'lakt-e/). Beyond the Alpine region, the feminine type can mainly be found in southern France and northern Spain (cf. DéROM loc. cit.). In some areas of the Alps, like Switzerland and Savoy, the word for milk is derived from Lat. *lacticellum, which is a diminutive form of lăcte(m) (cf. FEW 5, 114). Ita. latticèllo 'buttermilk' can be traced back to this as well (cf. DELI 3, 655). Furthermore, some terms that designate WHEY stem from this base type. Derivations with the suffix -ata, which constitutes a collective noun, served this purpose. However, based on the notion that the whey emitted during cheese production is not as rich a milk, diminutives can also often be found in this case. This led to the French expression petit-lait as the term for WHEY, which literally means 'small milk'. The preceding adjective petit 'small' conveys the same concept as a diminutive (cf. FEW 5: 114).
(auct. Myriam Abenthum | Stephan Lücke – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
*nīta (vor) (* = Reconstructed) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
This base type is prevalent in the Alemannic of German-speaking Switzerland (cf. Nidel 'cream, cream layer on top of boiled milk'; cf. Idiotikon under Nidel) and Ladin (nìda 'butter milk' (cf. EWD V: 49–50; cf. Blad under nìda). The assumption that the term was borrowed from German into Romansh seems hardly plausible. Rather, a pre-Latin *nīta should be considered (cf. Jud 1924: 201–203).
(auct. Myriam Abenthum | Thomas Krefeld – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
PART OF THE TREE, WOODY, VERTICALLY FIRM GROWING, ABOVE WHICH RISES THE CROWN OF BRANCHES BEARING LEAVES OR NEEDLES - Concept (Visualize on the map)
(See Wikidata Q193472)
pinguĕ(m) (lat) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
This base type goes back to the lat. accusative form pĭnguem 'fat' (cf. Georges under pinguis ), which has been preserved in Romansh, especially in Engadine painch 'butter' (cf. HWdR, 589, under pieun 'butter'). From an onomasiological standpoint, the specification from 'fat' to 'butter' can be easily be explained: In the areas where oil traditionally was not – or more precisely – could not be produced, BUTTER was simply used as FAT. Oil was not common in the local traditional cuisine, whereas the use of oil instead of butter was dominant in central and southern Italian cuisine (cf. Scheuermeier 1943: 28).
(auct. Myriam Abenthum | Thomas Krefeld – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
Schmalz (gem) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
This base type is of Germanic descent. It general, Schmalz means RENDERED FAT. In many dialects, it denotes DISSOLVED BUTTER WHICH THE WATER AND PROTEIN HAS BEEN EXTRACTED FROM. This facilitates conservation (cf. DWB under Schmalz). In regions where there is much dairy farming, Schmalz, meaning 'fresh and simmered butter', is often opposed to Anke 'fresh butter' (cf. Idiotikon under Schmalz).
With the meaning of 'butter', Schmalz also became a loanword in Alpine Romansh; cf. lld. smàlz (EWD VI: 273–274; Blad under smauz).
This type nicely shows the need, in the context of VerbaAlpina, to differentiate between the most remote etymon (Italian linguistics speaks of the etimologia remota; cf. Schweickard 2010) and the base type of the forms recorded. Naturally, the ger. Schmalz corresponds to the verb schmelzen, as Kluge elaborates:
„Sn std. (9. Jh.), mhd. smalz, ahd. smalz, mndd. smalt, smolt, mndl. smout as 'rendered fat' from schmelzen. Verb: schmalzen; adjective: schmalzig" (Kluge).
However, it seems that the noun in only documented in Dutch and German. It further seems to be the case that all forms recorded within VA's materials must be attributed to this noun. Because of this, it would be misleading to adduce a reconstructed Indo-Germanic verbal stem like *smelt-a.
With the meaning of 'butter', Schmalz also became a loanword in Alpine Romansh; cf. lld. smàlz (EWD VI: 273–274; Blad under smauz).
This type nicely shows the need, in the context of VerbaAlpina, to differentiate between the most remote etymon (Italian linguistics speaks of the etimologia remota; cf. Schweickard 2010) and the base type of the forms recorded. Naturally, the ger. Schmalz corresponds to the verb schmelzen, as Kluge elaborates:
„Sn std. (9. Jh.), mhd. smalz, ahd. smalz, mndd. smalt, smolt, mndl. smout as 'rendered fat' from schmelzen. Verb: schmalzen; adjective: schmalzig" (Kluge).
However, it seems that the noun in only documented in Dutch and German. It further seems to be the case that all forms recorded within VA's materials must be attributed to this noun. Because of this, it would be misleading to adduce a reconstructed Indo-Germanic verbal stem like *smelt-a.
(auct. Myriam Abenthum | Thomas Krefeld – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
sōlārium (lat) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
The substantive base type Lat. solarium is derived from the Latin adjective sōlārius 'belonging to the sun'. The noun appeared in Latin with mainly two meanings: 1) sundial, 2) any place that is exposed to the sun (cf. Georges under solarius). Both meanings are already proven in Plautus (cf. Georges, under solarius; cf. FEW 12, 36-38 under solarium). The base type in its original meaning (2) can be found in Standard Italian and Standard German as well as Old and Middle French (cf. Ital. solaio, Ger. Söller, OFr. soler (see Du Cange Vol. 7 under solier).
(auct. Sonja Schwedler-Stängl | Aleksander Wiatr – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
*sponga (* = Reconstructed) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
This base type originates from lat. spŏngia 'sponge' which was borrowed from grc. σπογγιά. The newer form *sponga resulted from the influence of grc. σπόγγος. As a consequence, the suffix -ia was simplified to -a and the female gender was preserved. *Sponga became fra. éponge and ita. spongia. In Italy, the word has spread along the east coast from south to north, replacing lat. spongia in the Po Valley. While it also spread towards the north at the west coast, it could not suppress Tuscan spugna from lat. spŏngia. At the expense of spŏngia, it also spread across the entire Gallo-Roman area. Here, Marseille is suggested as the centre of this development, since the word arrived from Greece via the trade with sponges. Marseille was the main location for this (cf. FEW 12, 207–209 under spongia). The word was borrowed by Dolomite Ladin from Veneto or Trentino (vgl. EWD VI: 395). In Friuli, this type was used metaphorically to denote butter (vgl. AIS, map 1207 and map 1208; cf.ASLEF 3397) which might be due to its similarity in shape and colour to a sponge. During churning, the fat separates from the buttermilk in the form of butter granules. After draining the buttermilk, the butter granules are washed and then kneaded to squeeze out the remaining liquid (vgl. Mohr 1937: 379–380).
(auct. Myriam Abenthum – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
tēla (lat) - Base type (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
This base type indubitably goes back to Latin; cf. Georges under tēla 'weave'. There are cognates for this term in the entire Romanesque language area, such as Ron. teară 'warp', Ita. tela 'weave', Piedmontese teila, Fr. toile, Rm. (Engadine) taila, Friulan tele, Es. tela or Por. teia. Apart from its original meaning, tēla developed a further specification denoting 'skin, encasement'. The mentioned metaphorical derivations 'SKIN ON THE MILK, CREAM' are nicely displayed on the map of tela. They can also be found elsewhere, like in Old Provencal teleta 'PEAU QUI SE FORME SUR LE LAIT CUIT' or Aromanian teară 'SKIN ON THE MILK' (cf. FEW under tēla 13/1: 158-162 and REW 8620 under tēla). A similarly inspired metaphor would be *nīta.
(auct. Myriam Abenthum | Thomas Krefeld – trad. Mia-Sophie Burgdorf)
*toma (vor) (* = Reconstructed) - Base type (Visualize on the map)
Cf. the comments on fra./ita. tomme/toma.
WHEY - Concept (Quote) (Visualize on the map)
(See Wikidata Q185009)